Encapsulation of conjugated linoleic acid and ruminant trans fatty acids to study the prevention of metabolic syndrome-a review.

Studies have reported the potential benefits of consuming conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and ruminant trans fatty acids (R-TFAs) in reducing the risk factors of metabolic syndrome (MetS). In addition, encapsulation of CLA and R-TFAs may improve their oral delivery and further decrease the risk factors of MetS. The objectives of this review were (1) to discuss the advantages of encapsulation; (2) to compare the materials and techniques used for encapsulating CLA and R-TFAs; and (3) to review the effects of encapsulated vs non-encapsulated CLA and R-TFAs on MetS risk factors. Examination of papers citing micro- and nano-encapsulation methods used in food sciences, as well as the effects of encapsulated vs non-encapsulated CLA and R-TFAs, was conducted using the PubMed database. A total of 84 papers were examined; of these, 18 studies were selected that contained information on the effects of encapsulated CLA and R-TFAs. The 18 studies that described encapsulation of CLA or R-TFAs indicated that micro- or nano-encapsulation processes stabilized CLA and prevented oxidation. CLA was mainly encapsulated using carbohydrates or proteins. So far, oil-in-water emulsification followed by spray-drying were the frequently used techniques for encapsulation of CLA. Further, 4 studies investigated the effects of encapsulated CLA on MetS risk factors compared with non-encapsulated CLA. A limited number of studies investigated the encapsulation of R-TFAs. The effects of encapsulated CLA or R-TFAs on the risk factors for MetS remain understudied; thus, additional studies comparing the effects of encapsulated and non-encapsulated CLA or R-TFAs are needed.

A prospective cohort study on the association between dietary fatty acids intake and risk of hypertension incident.

There are inconclusive results available on the association between dietary fatty acid intake and the risk of hypertension (HTN) incident. In this study, we investigate the relationship between baseline dietary fatty acids intake including polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), trans fatty acids (TFA), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA), and saturated fatty acid (SFA), and the risk of first incidence hypertension. The current prospective cohort study was carried out from the Ravansar Non-Communicable Diseases (RaNCD) cohort. A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) with 118 items was used for the assessment of dietary data. Cox proportional hazards analyses were done to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) of the highest versus lowest quartile intake of SFA, PUFA, MUFA, and SFA and risk of HTN. Out of 7359 eligible participants, 597 new cases of HTN were identified over an average of 6.4 ± 1.33 years of follow-up. No significant relationship was observed between the fourth compared to the first categories of dietary SFA (HR: 0.82, 95% CI 0.55, 1.21; P trend: 0.476), MUFA (HR: 0.71, 95% CI 0.48, 1.06; P trend: 0.252), PUFA (HR: 0.86, 95% CI 0.62, 1.19; P trend: 0.315) and TFA (HR: 0.99, 95% CI 0.76, 1.27; P trend: 0.675), and risk of HTN. However, a significant inverse association between each 1 g per day increase in dietary MUFA intake during 6.4 years of follow up and HTN incident (HR: 0.97; 95% CI 0.94, 0.99; P 0.044) was observed. In brief, our study revealed that higher dietary MUFA intake was protectively associated with HTN incident. Dietary MUFA-rich foods should be encouraged to improve blood pressure.

Burden of ischemic heart disease attributable to trans fatty acids, 1990-2019.

BACKGROUND & AIM: The impact of cardiovascular disease attributable to trans fatty acids (TFAs) in the Brazilian population has not been systematically evaluated. This study aims to analyze the burden of ischemic heart disease (IHD) attributable to TFAs in Brazil between 1990 and 2019. METHODS: Data from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019 were used to investigate the attributable burden in Brazil and its 27 federative units, for both sexes-pooled adults aged ≥25 years. Mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) from IHD attributable to TFAs were expressed as crude and age-standardized rates and differences from 1990 to 2019 by percentage and annualized rate of change. Linear regression was used to investigate trends. National voluntary and regulatory policies for industrial TFAs (iTFAs) implemented until 2019, summary exposure value (SEV) and sociodemographic index (SDI) were examined. RESULTS: Between 1990 and 2019, crude and age-standardized mortality rates from IHD attributable to TFAs decreased by -15.9% and -58.0%, respectively, in Brazil. A decrease in crude (-23.3%) and age-standardized (-56.4%) DALY rates of IHD attributable to TFAs was also noticed in the country. States of the South, Southeast, and the Federal District had the largest declines of IHD attributable to TFAs, while states of the Northeast and North had the smallest or even an increase. The policies already adopted had little effect on the IHD burden. A lower SEV and higher SDI value seemed to reduce the burden of IHD. CONCLUSIONS: Although a downward trend in IHD attributable to TFAs and a reduction in exposure to TFAs were observed, this burden is still relevant in Brazil, reinforcing the importance of diet policies, such as banning iTFAs.

Association of dietary fatty acids with the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease in a prospective cohort of United States veterans.

BACKGROUND: Atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ASCVDs) are the leading cause of worldwide adult mortality. Although broad classes of dietary fats have been shown to alter ASCVD risk, the roles that individual dietary fatty acids play in influencing ASCVD risk are unclear. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this prospective cohort study was to examine the relationships of the total fat classes and individual fatty acids with the risk of ASCVD. METHODS: The Million Veteran Program is a prospective cohort whereby dietary intake of fatty acids was assessed in 158,198 participants that had enrolled between January 2011 and November 2018 and were free of ASCVD at baseline. Incident ASCVD was ascertained from the Veterans Affairs electronic health records and the National Death Index. Multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) for the relationship between fat intake and ASCVD risk were computed using Cox regression models. RESULTS: The mean age was 61 years, 88% were males. A total of 11,771 ASCVD events were identified during the follow-up. When compared with the lowest quintile, participants in the highest quintile of dietary trans-monounsaturated fats and conjugated linoleic acids had an increased risk (HR [95% CI]) of ASCVD events: 1.10 (1.04, 1.17) and 1.11 (1.05, 1.18), respectively. When compared with low consumers, participants in the highest quintile of total cis-polyunsaturated fatty acid intake had a lower risk of experiencing an ASCVD event 0.93 (0.87, 0.99). CONCLUSION: Although higher intakes of specific trans-fatty acids and conjugated linoleic were associated with an increased risk of ASCVD, the same cannot be said for all other fat classes. This work suggests that care must be taken when drawing general conclusions regarding the health effects of dietary individual fatty acids.

C57bl/6 Mice Show Equivalent Taste Preferences toward Ruminant and Industrial Trans Fatty Acids.

Two distinct types of trans fatty acids (TFA) are found in the diet. Industrial TFA such as elaidic acid (EA) have deleterious effects on metabolic risk factors, and oppositely ruminant TFA including trans-palmitoleic acid (TPA) may have beneficial effects. The objective is to evaluate the taste preference between EA, TPA, lecithin or water. In this study, 24 female C57BL/6 mice were microchipped and placed in two separate IntelliCages®. Nano encapsulated TFA or lecithin were added to drinking water in different corners of the cage with normal diet. The study was carried out over 5 weeks, during which mice were exposed to water only (weeks 1 and 3), TFA or lecithin (week 2), and EA or TPA (weeks 4 and 5). Mice weights, corner visits, nose pokes (NP), and lick number were measured each week. The results demonstrated that mice consume more TFA, either EA or TPA, compared with lecithin. In addition, the mice licked more EA compared with TPA in one cage; conversely, in the other cage they licked more TPA compared with EA. However, when TFA positions were swapped, mice had equal licks for EA and TPA. In sum, mice preferred TFA, in equal matter compared with controls; therefore, the results demonstrate the potential for TFA-type substitution in diet.

Ultra-Processed Food Consumption Is Related to Higher Trans Fatty Acids, Sugar Intake, and Micronutrient-Impaired Status in Schoolchildren of Bahia, Brazil.

Ultra-processed food (UPF) consumption impacts nutrient intake and plays an important role in non-communicable diseases (NCD), even among schoolchildren. This cross-sectional study aimed to characterize the food consumption of this population and its relationship with laboratory and anthropometric aspects. A sample of 190 subjects aged 5 to 19 y was randomly selected for dietary, laboratory, and anthropometric assessment. Statistical inference was calculated using Spearman's correlation. Excess weight was observed in 34%, a high Waist-to-Height Ratio in 9%, and hypertriglyceridemia in 17% of the subjects, higher among those from urban schools (45%, p = 0.011; 15%, p = 0.015; 24%, p = 0.026, respectively). UPF consumption represented 21% of caloric intake and showed a positive correlation with trans fatty acids (r = 0.70) and sugar (r = 0.59) intake. Unprocessed food consumption showed a weak, but significant, correlation with Body Mass Index (r = 0.22) and Waist Circumference (r = 0.23), while processed meat showed a negative correlation with serum ferritin (r = -0.16) and vitamins D (r = -0.20) and B12 (r = -0.15). These findings highlight the need for public policies to promote Food and Nutritional Security for schoolchildren to prevent NCD and nutritional deficiencies.

Trans-fatty acid blood levels of industrial but not natural origin are associated with cardiovascular risk factors in patients with HFpEF: a secondary analysis of the Aldo-DHF trial.

BACKGROUND: Industrially processed trans-fatty acids (IP-TFA) have been linked to altered lipoprotein metabolism, inflammation and increased NT-proBNP. In patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), associations of TFA blood levels with patient characteristics are unknown. METHODS: This is a secondary analysis of the Aldo-DHF-RCT. From 422 patients, individual blood TFA were analyzed at baseline in n = 404 using the HS-Omega-3-Index® methodology. Patient characteristics were: 67 ± 8 years, 53% female, NYHA II/III (87/13%), ejection fraction ≥ 50%, E/e' 7.1 ± 1.5; NT-proBNP 158 ng/L (IQR 82-298). A principal component analysis was conducted but not used for further analysis as cumulative variance for the first two PCs was low. Spearman's correlation coefficients as well as linear regression analyses, using sex and age as covariates, were used to describe associations of whole blood TFA with metabolic phenotype, functional capacity, echocardiographic markers for LVDF and neurohumoral activation at baseline and after 12 months. RESULTS: Blood levels of the naturally occurring TFA C16:1n-7t were inversely associated with dyslipidemia, body mass index/truncal adiposity, surrogate markers for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and inflammation at baseline/12 months. Conversely, IP-TFA C18:1n9t, C18:2n6tt and C18:2n6tc were positively associated with dyslipidemia and isomer C18:2n6ct with dysglycemia. C18:2n6tt and C18:2n6ct were inversely associated with submaximal aerobic capacity at baseline/12 months. No significant association was found between TFA and cardiac function. CONCLUSIONS: In HFpEF patients, higher blood levels of IP-TFA, but not naturally occurring TFA, were associated with dyslipidemia, dysglycemia and lower functional capacity. Blood TFAs, in particular C16:1n-7t, warrant further investigation as prognostic markers in HFpEF. Higher blood levels of industrially processed TFA, but not of the naturally occurring TFA C16:1n-7t, are associated with a higher risk cardiometabolic phenotype and prognostic of lower aerobic capacity in patients with HFpEF.

Different Types of Industry-Produced and Ruminant Trans Fatty Acid Intake and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: Findings From the NutriNet-Santé Prospective Cohort.

OBJECTIVE: The deleterious effects of trans fatty acids (TFAs) on cardiovascular health are well established; however, their impact on type 2 diabetes remains poorly understood. In particular, little is known about the impact of specific TFA types on type 2 diabetes etiology. We aimed to explore the associations between different types of TFAs (total, ruminant, industry produced [iTFAs], and corresponding specific isomers) and risk of type 2 diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 105,551 participants age >18 years from the French NutriNet-Santé cohort (2009-2021) were included (mean baseline age 42.7 years; SD 14.6 years); 79.2% were women. Dietary intake data, including usual TFA intake, were collected using repeated 24-h dietary records (n = 5.7; SD 3.1). Associations between sex-specific quartile of dietary TFAs and diabetes risk were assessed using multivariable Cox models. RESULTS: Total TFA intake was associated with higher type 2 diabetes risk (hazard ratio [HR]quartile 4 vs. 1 1.38; 95% CI 1.11-1.73; Ptrend < 0.001; n = 969 incident cases). This association, specifically observed for iTFAs (HR 1.45; 95% CI 1.15-1.83; Ptrend < 0.001), was mainly driven by elaidic acid (HR 1.37; 95% CI 1.09-1.72; Ptrend < 0.001) and linolelaidic acid (HR 1.29; 95% CI 1.04-1.58; Ptrend = 0.07). In contrast, ruminant TFAs were not significantly associated with risk of type 2 diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: In this large prospective cohort, higher intakes of total and iTFAs were associated with increased type 2 diabetes risk. These findings support the World Health Organization's recommendation to eliminate iTFAs from the food supply worldwide. Consumers should be advised to limit the consumption of food products containing partially hydrogenated oils (main vector of iTFAs). This may contribute to lowering the substantial global burden of type 2 diabetes.

Dietary Ruminant and Industrial Trans-Fatty Acids Intake and Colorectal Cancer Risk.

As colorectal cancer (CRC) is largely due to modifiable lifestyle habits, the awareness on its risk factors is highly important. Dietary fatty acids have been linked to CRC risk. We explored the association between dietary trans fatty acids (TFAs) intake and CRC risk. We analyzed 865 CRC cases (434 in colon and 404 in rectum) and 3206 controls of the IROPICAN study, with data collected by trained interviewers using validated questionnaires. TFAs intake (industrial and ruminant types) was categorized into quartiles. Multivariate logistic regression models were built to calculate the odds ratios (OR) for the association between CRC and TFAs. We observed a positive association between industrial TFAs and colon cancer (OR for highest vs lowest quartile [ORQ4vsQ1] = 1.28, 95% confidence interval 1.07-1.54). A higher association was observed between industrial TFAs and CRC, occurring after 50 years of age. In addition, elaidic acid was associated with an increased risk of colon (ORQ4vsQ1 = 1.58, 1.24-2.02) and specifically of proximal colon cancer (OR Q4vsQ1 = 2.12, 1.40-3.20), as well as of rectum cancer (ORQ4vsQ1 = 1.40, 1.07-1.83). An inverse association was observed between ruminant TFAs intake and colon cancer risk (ORQ4vsQ1 = 0.80, 0.67-0.97). Industrial TFAs, such as semisolid/solid hydrogenated oils, may increase the risk of CRC, especially colon and proximal colon cancer. In contrast, ruminant TFAs do not appear to be associated with CRC. Awareness programs and regulatory actions regarding hydrogenated oils are warranted, given their high consumption through ultra-processed foods in more developed and less developed countries.

Development and application of the TFA macrosimulation model: a case study of modelling the impact of trans fatty acid (TFA) elimination policies in Brazil.

INTRODUCTION: The consumption of trans-fatty acids (TFA) is directly associated with cardiovascular disease risk and is responsible for a significant health burden globally. The policy strategies for reducing TFA include limiting their content in foods and eliminating partially hydrogenated oils (PHO) in the market. This study aims to describe a comparative risk assessment macrosimulation model and to apply this tool to estimate the potential reductions in CVD mortality gained from the compared scenarios of TFA reduction/elimination in Brazil. METHODOLOGY: We developed and implemented a comparative risk assessment macrosimulation model estimates the potential CVD mortality reduction (coronary heart disease - CHD- and stroke) if TFA intake is reduced in diets. The TFA macrosimulation model estimates the change in the annual number of NCD deaths between baseline with current TFA consumption levels and alternate or counterfactual scenarios, such as considering different limits to TFA content in foods and the elimination of PHO in Brazil in 2018. The model incorporated additional outputs related to other impacts of TFA reduction on DPP, such as Years of Life Lost, Years of Productive Life Lost, and related economic impacts of premature deaths. RESULTS: In 2018, a 2% limit for TFA in the oils and fats and a 5% limit of TFAs for other foods could avert or postpone approximately 2,000 deaths (UI 95% 1,899-2,142) and save US$ 32.1 million savings in productivity losses to the economy associated to premature deaths. An intermediate scenario, applying a 2% limit of TFA in all food products In Brazil could prevent or postpone approximately 6,300 deaths (UI 95% 5,925-6,684) and the premature deaths prevented would represent US$ 100.2 million in economic saving. Finally, by banning PHO, approximately 10,500 deaths could be prevented or postponed (UI 95% 9,963 - 10,909), corresponding to US$ 166.7 million in savings to the economy because of premature deaths. CONCLUSION: The TFA macrosimulation model can efficiently compare different policy scenarios for trans fats reduction policies at the country level and proves that the elimination of PHOs from the food market in Brazil may significantly reduce the health burden of trans fatty acids in the country compared to other policy options. The model also represents a useful public health tool to support TFA reduction and elimination policies in other countries.

Prenatal exposure to trans fatty acids and head growth in fetal life and childhood: triangulating confounder-adjustment and instrumental variable approaches.

Dietary trans fatty acids (TFAs) are primarily industrially produced and remain abundant in processed food, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Although TFAs are a cause of adverse cardiometabolic outcomes, little is known about exposure to TFAs in relation to brain development. We aimed to investigate the effect of maternal TFA concentration during pregnancy on offspring head growth in utero and during childhood. In a prospective population-based study in Rotterdam, the Netherlands, with 6900 mother-child dyads, maternal plasma TFA concentration was assessed using gas chromatography in mid-gestation. Offspring head circumference (HC) was measured in the second and third trimesters using ultrasonography; childhood brain morphology was assessed using magnetic resonance imaging at age 10 years. We performed regression analyses adjusting for sociodemographic and lifestyle confounders and instrumental variable (IV) analyses. Our IV analysis leveraged a national policy change that led to a substantial reduction in TFA and occurred mid-recruitment. After adjusting for covariates, maternal TFA concentration during pregnancy was inversely related to fetal HC in the third trimester (mean difference per 1% wt:wt increase: - 0.33, 95% CI - 0.51, - 0.15, cm) and to fetal HC growth from the second to the third trimester (- 0.04, 95% CI - 0.06, - 0.02, cm/week). Consistent findings were obtained with IV analyses, strengthening a causal interpretation. Association between prenatal TFA exposure and HC in the second trimester or global brain volume at age 10 years was inconclusive. Our findings are of important public health relevance as TFA levels in food remain high in many countries.

Understanding the Complexities of Eliminating Trans Fatty Acids: The Case of the Trans Fatty Acid Ban in Thailand.

Trans fatty acids (TFAs) have no known health benefits and are linked to an increased risk of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs). To eliminate TFAs from the food supply, the government of Thailand imposed a ban on partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs) in 2018. This study was aimed at analyzing the government policies and actions to eliminate TFAs in Thailand, focusing on policy content, context, process, and actors. This single-case qualitative study used a documentary review and interviews with 20 key policy actors. The data analysis was guided by thematic analysis based on the policy triangle framework. The results reveal that policy actors-government organizations, academics, civil society organizations, and the food industry-have different roles, interests, and influences with regard to eliminating TFAs in Thailand. Both formal and informal communication among policy actors aided in the policymaking process and the actions that followed. Changing perceptions of TFAs, the low intake of PHOs in Thailand, hype around trans fats, and trade dynamics shaped the government's decision to impose the ban. As a result, the ban was selected to avoid the technical components of TFA elimination. This study suggests that eliminating TFAs in Thailand could be further enhanced by strengthening government actions in terms of enforcement and creating consumer awareness.

On account of trans fatty acids and cardiovascular disease risk - There is still need to upgrade the knowledge and educate consumers.

AIMS: Trans fatty acids (TFAs) are unsaturated lipids either of industrial origin or naturally occurring in ruminant meat and milk. TFAs generated through food processing (industrial) is the main source in our diet and studies provide converging evidence on their negative effect on cardiovascular health. Since April 2021, the European Commission has put into effect a regulation for TFAs providing maximum 2% of total fat in all industrially produced foods. In light of this development, we review the evidence regarding the health attributes of different types of TFAs, their dietary sources and current intakes, and we describe the history of TFA-related legislative actions in an attempt to anticipate the efficiency of new measures. DATA SYNTHESIS: The PubMed database was searched including original research (observational and intervention studies), systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Scientific reports of competent authorities and organizations have also been screened. CONCLUSIONS: Trans-fat elimination provides a fine example of how evidence has led to the application of horizontal regulatory measures regarding legal food ingredients in order to protect consumers' health. In EU Member States, TFAs currently provide on average less than 1% of energy (1%E) and intakes marginally exceed recommendations primarily among young adults. Large dietary surveys however provide evidence for additional, less-well known sources of TFAs in the diet. Raising public awareness of "hidden" trans-fat found naturally in foods such as cheese, as well as of the trans-fat generated through traditional cooking practices is needed, if the goal to eliminate trans-fat from the diet is to be met.

Does trans fatty acid affect low birth weight? A randomised controlled trial.

To evaluate the effect of low trans fatty acids (TFAs) dietary patterns during pregnancy on the risk of low birth weight (LBW). All pregnant women who received prenatal care with gestational age <8 weeks in this study took place in Tehran from December 2014 to August 2016. Women in the intervention group received dietary patterns with TFAs content of < 1%; those in the control group had dietary intake without any change in TFAs content. Dietary intakes were assessed by 3 non-consecutive 24-hour recalls in three trimesters. Hazard ratio (HR) was calculated using Cox proportional-hazards models. Incidence and HR (95% CI) for LBW based on multivariable adjusted models were calculated. Of the 800 women (n = 407 in control and n = 393 in intervention groups), 108 (13.5%) women were diagnosed with LBW. The incidence of LBW in the intervention group was 12% and in the control group was 19%. After multivariable adjustment for confounders, the HR for incident LBW in the intervention group was 0.65 (0.44-0.96). Kaplan-Meier plot showed a significant difference between the two groups in the incidence of LBW. Intake of low TFAs dietary patterns during pregnancy reduced the risk of LBW. IMPACT STATEMENTWhat is already known on this subject? Maternal nutrition affects foetal development, and one important dietary determinant of foetal growth may be trans fatty acids (TFAs). It is generally advised to avoid high-fat dairy products that are the main sources of TFAs during pregnancy; however, there is limited data on the effects of a diet of LBW.What do the results of this study add? Intake of low TFAs dietary patterns during pregnancy reduced the risk of LBW. In this study, the risk of LBW in the intervention group decreased by about 50%.What are the implications of these findings for clinical practice and/or further research? The results of this study could give physicians and other health care providers the hint that Management of maternal nutrition with focussed on TFAs content should be included in routine prenatal care, to facilitate interventions and guidance regarding maternal nutrition.

Pre-pregnancy fat intake in relation to hypertensive disorders of pregnancy.

BACKGROUND: Many studies have linked intakes of fat and of specific fatty acids during pregnancy with preeclampsia; however, information on the association of intake before pregnancy with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) is scant. OBJECTIVES: We evaluated the associations of intakes of major and specific types of fat before pregnancy with the risks of HDP, including preeclampsia and gestational hypertension (GHTN). METHODS: We followed 11,535 women without chronic disease participating in the Nurses' Health Study II from 1991 and 2009. Pre-pregnancy dietary fat was assessed by an FFQ. Intakes of total fat, saturated fat, trans fatty acid (TFA), MUFAs, PUFAs, and fat subtypes (omega-3 and omega-6) were categorized into quintiles of intake. HDP were self-reported. The RRs (95% CIs) of HDP were estimated by log-binomial generalized estimating equation regression models, with an exchangeable correlation matrix to account for repeated pregnancies while adjusting for potential confounders. RESULTS: During 19 years of follow-up, there were 495 cases of preeclampsia (2.9%) and 561 (3.3%) cases of GHTN in 16,892 singleton pregnancies. The mean age at pregnancy was 34.6 years (SD, 3.9 years). Among major fat types, only pre-pregnancy TFA was related to a higher risk of HDP (RR, 1.32; 95% CI: 1.05-1.66), and only for preeclampsia (RR, 1.50; 95% CI: 1.07-2.10) but not for GHTN (RR, 1.21; 95% CI: 0.87-1.70). Among specific types of PUFAs, intake of arachidonic acid was positively related with GHTN (RR, 1.43; 95% CI: 1.00-2.04) but not preeclampsia (RR, 1.08; 95% CI: 0.75-1.57). In analyses restricted to pregnancies 1 year after the diet assessment, women with the highest intake of long-chain omega-3 fatty acids had a 31% lower risk of HDP (95% CI: 3%-51%), which was driven by preeclampsia (RR, 0.55; 95% CI: 0.33-0.92). CONCLUSIONS: Pre-pregnancy intakes of total fat, saturated fat, and MUFA were unrelated to HDP, whereas TFA was positively related to HDP. These findings highlight the importance of ongoing efforts to eliminate TFA from the global food supply.

Influence of Heating during Cooking on Trans Fatty Acid Content of Edible Oils: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Consumption of trans fatty acids (TFA) is associated with adverse health outcomes and is a considerable burden on morbidity and mortality globally. TFA may be generated by common cooking practices and hence contribute to daily dietary intake. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the relationship between heating edible oils and change in their TFA content. A systematic search of experimental studies investigating the effect of various methods of heating on TFA content of edible oils was conducted in Medline and Embase since their inception up to 1 October 2020 without language restrictions. Comparable data were analysed using mixed multilevel linear models taking into account individual study variation. Thirty-three studies encompassing twenty-one different oils were included in this review. Overall, heating to temperatures <200 °C had no appreciable impact on different TFA levels. Between 200 and 240 °C, levels of C18:2 t (0.05% increase per 10 °C rise in temperature, 95% CI: 0.02 to 0.05%), C18:3t (0.18%, 95% CI: 0.14 to 0.21%), and total TFA (0.38%, 95% CI: 0.20 to 0.55%) increased with temperature. A further increase in total TFA was observed with prolonged heating between 200 and 240 °C. Our findings suggest that heating edible oils to common cooking temperatures (≤200 °C) has minimal effect on TFA generation whereas heating to higher temperatures can increase TFA level. This provides further evidence in favour of public health advice that heating oils to very high temperatures and prolonged heating of oils should be avoided.